The Zebu bull motif on the Indus seals is depicted with a remarkable level of detail and artistry, indicating the animal's significance in the society of that era. The bull is frequently depicted in a standing or seated position alongside other symbols and scripts that have yet to be deciphered.

In the context of the Indus Valley civilisation, the significance of the zebu bull is still a matter of scholarly debate. Some researchers believe it may have had religious or ritualistic significance; others believe it may have represented the economic significance of cattle in agriculture and commerce during that period.

Regardless of its precise meaning, the zebu bull motif on Indus seals continues to fascinate archaeologists, historians, and enthusiasts as they seek to uncover the secrets of the remarkable ancient culture of the Indus Valley.

The zebu bull, scientifically known as Bos indicus, is a variety of South Asian cattle distinguished by the hump on its back and a dewlap, a loose skin fold hanging from its neck. This bull was vital to the agricultural and cultural existence of the Indus Valley civilisation, which flourished between 3300 and 1300 BCE in Pakistan and northwest India.

Sir John Marshall, director-general of the Archaeological Survey of India from 1902 to 1928, wrote in his book Mohenjo-Daro and Indus Civilization that the zebu bull, with its curving wide horns and its heavy dewlap is the most impressive motif discovered in the Indus seals. The zebu motif is virtually exclusive to the most important cities of Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa and is typically carved on large seals with brief inscriptions.

Sir Marshall emphasised the rarity of zebu seals because the humped bull is a recurring motif appearing on painted pottery and as figurines in many ritual and decorative arts of the Indus region since long before the rise of cities. The zebu bull may represent the leader of the herd, whose strength and virility safeguard the herd and ensure the species' survival, or it may represent an animal that has been sacrificed. When carved in stone, the zebu bull likely represents the most potent lineage or the highest-ranking officials of Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa.

Over time, Sir Marshall's stance became somewhat more moderate. Noting the exquisite depiction of the zebu on the Mohenjo-Daro seal number, he stated, "Experienced sculptors whom I have consulted on the subject believe that an artist who could engrave the seal in question would have had little trouble carving the statuette; archaeologists will likely hold a different opinion and prefer to await additional discoveries before committing."

Religious or Ritualistic Significance

To scholars, Mohenjo Daro and Harrapan bull figurines and seals are the most enigmatic and cryptic artefacts. Numerous academics believed that the large-scale depiction of bulls indicated they are cult symbols or have religious significance. Some scholars attribute the bull's representation in the current Hindu sacred text to its many forms and characters as an example of a pre-Vedic religious connection.

Religion was the common denominator among all Chalcolithic cultures (the first to use copper). It was a ritual to worship the mother deity and the bull. The Ahar culture was a Chalcolithic archaeological culture on the banks of the Ahar River in south-eastern Rajasthan, India. It lasted from approximately 3000 to 1500 BCE and was contemporary with the Indus Valley Civilisation. During the Ahar culture period - also known as the Banas culture - the bull cult appears to have been prevalent in Malwa.

The similarity is also noticeable with Rishabha, an epithet for Rudra (Shiva) in Vedic literature, and a word for ‘bull’. Rishabha is depicted as an avatar of Vishnu, one of Hinduism's primary deities. He is the supreme being in Vaishnavism, one of Hinduism's main traditions. In the Yuddha Kanda of the Ramayana, Brahma reveals to Rama his true identity and tells him about the numerous incarnations of Vishnu: "In the form of the Vedas, you are the great bull with a hundred heads (rules) and a thousand horns (precepts)."

In another instance, Vishnu assumed the form of a colossal bull to protect Shiva and Bramha during their battle with Tripurasura. Tripurasura were the three sons of the Asura Tarakasura: Tarakaksha, Vidyunmali, and Kamalaksha, These three started performing rigorous tapasya (a practical spiritual discipline that involves deep meditation, austerity/moderation, self-discipline, and efforts to reach self-realisation). Brahma then granted them three gold, silver, and iron forts, inciting the Devas. Vishnu then created a new religion to make them evil, and Lord Shiva took on the task of slaying the Asuras, which took three days on the battlefield, culminating in the death of Tripurasura and the destruction of the three cities. This occurred when there was a full moon in the month of Kartik, a day still celebrated as Tripurari Pournima in India.

According to the myth, when Shiva was about to combat Tripurasura, the chariot he was riding collapsed, and neither Shiva nor Bramha could pull it back up. Seeing the despair of the Devathas (Hindu gods), the Supreme Lord Vishnu transformed into a bull, lifted the chariot carrying Shiva and Bramha by the horns, and let out a mighty roar.

Gerd Mevissen, one of the foremost historians of south Indian temple chariots, cites a Hindu myth in one of his research papers, stating, "When Shiva mounted the chariot, it threatened to sink." Vishnu took the form of a white bull and lifted and stabilised it. Undoubtedly, the Vaishnava Garuda Chariot conveys the origin histories of the Ratha Vimanas in the Shiva temples, demonstrating the fluidity of sectarian identities and affiliations.

There is also evidence of bull veneration on seals and sealings, as well as on terracotta, faience, and stone figurines. First, mythical and composite creatures exist, such as human-faced goats, rams or goats, bulls and elephants, three-headed chimaeras, and half-human, half-bovine creatures. The most prevalent depiction of a seal is likely a mythical unicorn.

From the time of the discovery of the Indus Valley Civilisation (c. 2300–1750 b.c.) in the 1920s, the so-called proto-Shiva seal from Mohenjo-Daro, also known as the 'Pasupathi Seal,' has been the subject of much debate and disagreement. Sir Marshall, the pioneer excavator of the Mohenjo-Daro site of the Indus, or Harappan civilisation, attributed the contested significance of the symbol.

The excavator analysed the distinctive features of the figure depicted on the Pasupathi Seal and concluded that it may represent the prototype of Shiva. This conclusion is based on several observations. Firstly, the figure is depicted with three heads, a characteristic that is comparable to mediaeval portrayals of Shiva. Secondly, the figure is seated in a posture resembling a yogi, and Shiva is widely regarded as the supreme yogi in Hindu mythology. Finally, the headdress the figure wears, consisting of two bull horns and a tall central portion, resembles the emblem associated with Shiva. Based on these interpretations, it is suggested that the worship of Shiva may have originated in a non-Aryan culture predating the arrival of the Aryans during the Vedic period.

Later, in Hindu iconography, the bull became Shiva's vehicle (vahana) and a symbol of erotic pleasure. Therefore, the prowess of the bull may also be used in the context of Harappa to represent procreative and progenitor powers and the resulting abundance of livestock.

The significance of the bull in ancient art

Most bull terracotta figurines were recovered alongside painted pottery during the earliest excavations. Handcrafted and frequently highly primitive, the figurines may one day provide valuable insights into the evolution of cultural and religious concepts that manifested in the later Indus Valley Civilisation. Both animal forms (typically bulls) and human forms (typically females) are prevalent throughout the region. The female figurines indicate a female cult, commonly identified as mother-goddess veneration.

As demonstrated, bull sculptures also link to later subcontinental culture, as the bull came to have significant economic, symbolic, and religious significance in the region. Bull imagery also suggests a possible connection with the Stone Age inhabitants, for whom bovines were important. A representation from the Zhob Valley in Balochistan is illustrative.

Numerous depictions of bulls in the Harappa culture represent another aspect of fecundity. On the Indus seals, bulls outnumber all other motifs. Additionally, bulls are frequently encountered as standalone sculptures. Frequently, the depictions are incredibly naturalistic. Several distinct species of bovines are readily distinguishable. These may represent some of the domesticated animals that were highly esteemed by society and acquired great economic significance for their proprietors. As the prospective father of generations of offspring, the bull may have come to represent wealth and fertility. Examining the seals recovered from various Harappa sites may provide the most straightforward explanation for the significance of this animal.

Given that later the Hindu god Shiva was firmly associated with the bull, the horned headdress lends credence to interpretations of this figure as Shiva's ancestor. In addition, it is conceivable that the figure has three faces, is ithyphallic, and either wears tiger skin or has a tiger-like upper torso. However, these characteristics are difficult to discern in such a small sculpture. These depictions can be connected to later Shiva iconography, as can the figure's apparent involvement in yogic practises.

Among the corpus of Indus seals, the designs of some bull seals or those depicting other animals appear to be repeated. However, this example and others depicting human-like figures engaging in religious activity appear unique. These seals represent only a tiny fraction of the thousands discovered at Harappa. Perhaps these were the personal possessions of a small number of high-ranking members of the society, while the others were a generic form utilised by large groups of people.

Arshad Awan is a Lahore-based author, educationist, brand strategist and journalist. He can be reached at: arshadawan@msn.com

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