As human beings, we possess both positive and negative qualities, and we often engage in actions we later regret. In the Dhammapada, a collection of sayings of the Buddha in verse form, one verse tells the story of a woman’s jealousy, written during the time the Buddha lived at the Jetavana Monastery. The verse is translated as: "Better is an evil deed not done, for misdeeds later torment. Better is a good deed done, for it does not bring torment."
As we know, human beings possess both good and bad qualities, and jealousy is one of them. Let me share a story of jealousy and dislike from the time of Prophet Ya'qub (AS). According to the story, Prophet Ya'qub (AS) fled to his maternal uncle Laban’s home to escape the wrath of his elder brother, as he had received his father’s blessings instead of his brother. Following his mother's advice, Ya'qub (AS) went to live with Laban. There, he fell in love with Laban's younger daughter, Rachel, and asked for her hand in marriage. However, Laban set a condition for him to serve as a shepherd for seven years. Ya'qub (AS) agreed, but due to Laban's deception or the custom in his tribe of not marrying off the younger daughter before the elder, he was tricked into marrying Laban's older daughter, Leah, instead. Eventually, Ya'qub (AS) married both Leah and Rachel, and due to Rachel's initial infertility, he also married their two maidservants.
Among the many offspring of Prophet Ya'qub (AS), his most beloved son was Yusuf (AS), as he was the son of Ya'qub’s first true love, Rachel. However, Yusuf (AS) was disliked by his brothers, particularly Dan, the son of Ya'qub's concubine Bilhah, who harbored jealousy toward him. This jealousy was exacerbated when Yusuf (AS) shared a dream with his brothers, even though his father had advised against it. In the dream, he saw himself in a position of power, which only fueled the resentment of his brothers.
Driven by this jealousy, the brothers conspired to get rid of Yusuf (AS). One day, while out hunting, they initially planned to kill him, but one of them suggested instead that they throw him into a well. They followed this plan, and a passing caravan later found Yusuf (AS) and sold him to a high-ranking official in Egypt, working under Pharaoh.
Despite his hardships, Yusuf (AS) survived and eventually rose to prominence due to his ability to interpret the Pharaoh's dream, which helped save Egypt from a devastating famine. Years later, he was reunited with his father and brothers. However, the bitterness of jealousy lingered throughout their lives, even after the death of Prophet Ya'qub (AS), despite the forgiveness Yusuf (AS) offered to his brothers.
The Jewish people ruled over Canaan for centuries, and at one point, the Israelites gained control over the entire region. However, from a Quranic perspective, God eventually withdrew this favor due to the disobedience of certain Jewish tribes. These tribes engaged in idolatry, practiced pagan rituals, took interest on loans and indulged in personal monetary dealings that were forbidden, and refused to follow other commands of God. As a result, God's favor was taken away, and they were held accountable for their actions. The Quran highlights these transgressions as a reason for the loss of divine support and the eventual decline in their rule over Canaan.
On his deathbed, Prophet Ya'qub (AS) blessed all of his children, including the two sons of Yusuf (AS), treating them as his own and granting them blessings similar to those of his other sons. These blessings eventually led to the formation of the twelve tribes of Israel, as narrated in the Quran, Bible, and Tanakh. In the Hebrew Tanakh, specifically in Genesis Chapter 49, verses 16-18, Prophet Ya'qub (AS) blesses his son Dan with the following words: "Dan will provide justice for his people as one of the tribes of Israel. Dan will be a snake by the roadside, a viper along the path, that bites the horse’s heels so that its rider tumbles backward. I look for your deliverance, Lord."
In Rabbinical literature, ‘Ben-Dan’ or ‘Bedan’ refers to someone descended from the tribe of Dan. One of the most famous figures from this tribe before the establishment of the Israelite monarchy was Samson, a judge of Israel. His story is recorded in Judges chapters 13 through 16. During a period when Israel was oppressed by the Philistines, the angel of the Lord appeared to Manoah, a man of Dan from the city of Zorah, and his wife, who had been barren. The angel predicted they would have a son, who would later become the legendary figure Samson, according to the Jewish Encyclopedia.
Samson's name is thought to be derived from the Hebrew word ‘shemesh’, meaning ‘sun’, symbolizing that he bore the name of God. In the blessings that Jacob pronounced on the tribe of Dan (Genesis 49:16-17), the tribe was compared to a snake. This comparison was made because, like a snake, the tribe was known for its vengeful nature. Samson's character reflected this trait, as he was known for his revengefulness. It is said that Samson's strength was entirely tied to his hair, and like a snake, whose venom continues to kill even after it is dead, Samson's power and vengeful nature were ultimately destructive, even after his death.
When Prophet Muhammad (PBUH) began preaching Islam, Jews were well settled across the Arabian Peninsula, especially in regions like Makkah, Madina and Yemen, among others. Along with other methods of preaching, the Prophet (PBUH) sent letters to surrounding kingdoms — such as the Byzantine, Axumite, and Egyptian empires — inviting them to Islam. One such letter was sent to the Sassanid king, Khusrow II, around 628 AD.
Upon receiving the letter, the emperor became enraged when he saw that his name was written after the name of Prophet Muhammad (PBUH). In his anger, Khusrow II tore up the letter and ordered his governor, Badhan, in Yemen to send men to bring the Prophet (PBUH) to him. The letter had been delivered by Abdullah bin Hudhayfah Sahmi. When he returned to Madina and told the Prophet what had happened, Prophet Muhammad (PBUH) prophesied that Khusrow II would meet a similar fate.
The governor, Badhan, then sent two men to the Prophet (PBUH), asking him to come with them. The Prophet (PBUH), recalling the previous incident, told them that Khusrow II would face a tragic end. Upon hearing this, the two men returned to Yemen and informed their governor of the prophecy. The governor, waiting to see if the prophecy would come true, witnessed it unfold: the son of Khusrow II killed him, fulfilling the Prophet's (PBUH) words.
In the aftermath, Badhan, the governor of Yemen, embraced Islam along with Faruz al-Daylami and many others, likely from Yemen and Balkh. Badhan, a person of Arab descent on his maternal side, had been appointed by the Sassanid Empire to rule Yemen. His role in the peaceful conquest of Yemen by Hazrat Ali ibn Talib (RA) was significant. Over time, it is believed that Badhan's name may have evolved from ‘Badhan’ to ‘Pathan’.
In Islamic literature, specifically in Hafiz Ibn Hajar Asqalani Al-Iṣābah fī Tamyīz al-Ṣahābah: A Morning in the Company of the Companions in version 9, page numbers 160-161, the people of Balkh, and it was reported on the authority of Al-Abbas bin Zinba, on the authority of his father, on the authority of Al-Dahhak, on the authority of his father, on the authority of his grandfather Fatik bin Qais, on the authority of his father Qais bin Yazid, who said,
In Islamic literature, specifically in Hafiz Ibn Hajar Asqalani's Al-Iṣābah fī Tamyīz al-Ṣahābah, a significant account is recorded in Volume 9, pages 160-161. The narration details an incident involving the people of Balkh. It is reported on the authority of Al-Abbas bin Zinba, on the authority of his father, on the authority of Al-Dahhak, on the authority of his father, on the authority of his grandfather Fatik bin Qais, on the authority of his father Qais bin Yazid, who said: “I went to the Prophet, peace and blessings be upon him, in Wadi al-Sab and I converted to Islam and pledged allegiance, and he wrote me a document and gave me a stick, so he came to his people and called them to Islam and they gathered to him on a mountain named Salman.”
According to some sources, the Prophet Muhammad (PBUH) recognized the leader of the group from Balkh as Bedhan, which may refer to the same person who was ruling Yemen at that time. This could indicate a connection to the ancestral lineage of Dan, the son of Prophet Ya'qub (AS), whose descendants are known as Bedan or Ben-Dan. These people had a long history of ruling various regions, including the northern and southern Jewish kingdoms. For example, Samson, the powerful Jewish judge, was from the tribe of Dan, and his descendants continued to rule in these regions for generations.
Furthermore, it is known that Prophet Solomon (Sulaiman) married a woman named Belqes, who was from the Sabean Kingdom. The Sabean Kingdom, a significant power in the region from the 8th century BCE to the 3rd century CE, was later absorbed into the Himyarite Kingdom in the first century BCE. In the 6th century, the Aksumite Empire, based in present-day Ethiopia, conquered the Himyarite Kingdom. However, their rule was short-lived, as the Sassanid Empire, based in modern-day Iran, eventually conquered Yemen from the Aksumites and established a province that lasted until the Arab conquest.
The Sabeans were Qahtanites, an ancient group of Arabian tribes originating from the southern Arabian Peninsula, specifically Yemen. They were one of the two main branches of Arabian tribes, the other being the Adnanites. The Qahtanites are considered the indigenous peoples of southern Arabia, and their legacy can still be seen in the cultures and traditions of modern-day Yemen.
In my studies of history, I came across a legendary figure, Qais Aylan, who is considered a common ancestor of several Arab tribes, including the Shayban, Harith, and Kinda. Qais Aylan was said to be a member of the Mudar tribe, a large and influential Arab tribe that inhabited the region of Najd in central Arabia.
Now, let’s examine the leader mentioned in the passage from Hafiz Ibn Hajar Asqalani’s Al-Iṣābah fī Tamyīz al-Ṣahābah. The figure in question is Qais bin Yazid, who is cited as having gone to the Prophet Muhammad (PBUH) in Wadi Ash Shab to accept Islam. According to the text, he was from the Shayban tribe and lived during the time of the Prophet (PBUH).
However, there seems to be a discrepancy. Wadi Ash Shab is located in Muscat, Oman, around 140 kilometres from Sur. While this is likely the correct location, it appears that the claim is not entirely accurate. Qais bin Yazid, the governor of Shayban during the Umayyad period (722-724 AD), would have been too young to have led a group during the event of 628 AD, the year when the Prophet was sending emissaries to various tribes. Thus, it seems unlikely that this was the same Qais bin Yazid.
In Darzinda, there is a tomb believed by locals to be the burial place of Qais Abdur Rahman, who is considered the forefather of the Pushtuns according to local lore. While it’s possible that this tradition holds some truth, it is likely that Qais Abdur Rahman may not be the father of all Pushtuns but rather of certain fractions. Qais Abdur Rahman is said to be the grandson of Abū Muḥammad Maʿdīkarib ibn Qays ibn Maʿdīkarib Al-Ash'ath. His family name, ibn al-Ashʿath, refers to his grandfather, who was known for his untidy hair (Al-Ash'ath means ‘untidy hair’ in Arabic).
Al-Ash'ath was a chief of the Kinda tribe in Hadramawt, who embraced Islam. However, after the Prophet Muhammad's (PBUH) death, he led his tribesmen against the Muslims during the Ridda Wars, only surrendering after a siege of his fortress. The family of Al-Ash'ath played a contentious role during the caliphate of Hazrat Ali (RA), and they are said to have been involved in his martyrdom.
After an unsuccessful revolt against the Umayyad Caliph Hajjaj bin Yusuf and Caliph Abd Al-Malik, Ibn Al-Ash'ath was forced to flee to Zabulistan (in modern-day Afghanistan) to avoid capture. He was eventually caught and either died or committed suicide by jumping from a castle in Rukhkhaj, around 704 AD. The location of Rukhkhaj is believed to be near the city of Qalat in Zabul Province. His final fate remains unclear, with various accounts offering different versions of his death.
Other ancient literature, like the Vedas – particularly the Rigveda, which is considered the oldest Aryan text – contain references to the Pakhta people, who are identified with the Pashtun tribes that penetrated up to the area bordering the Ravi river. The word ‘Pakhteen’, which is often used to refer to the Pashtuns, bears similarity to ‘Pakhtas’, and has many variations in spelling in turn, such as ‘Pashteen’ and ‘Pashtoon’, depending on the dialect.
The Vedic texts and hymns, which date back to around 1700-1100 BC, recount how Aryan clans or tribes initially arose in the Oxus basin and later spread southward across the Hindu Kush mountains. The Rigveda recounts the famous Dasarajna war, or the ‘Battle of the Ten Kings’, in which the Pakhtas are mentioned among the tribes that fought against an army led by King Sudas. The Pakhtas were described as living in the hills of Kruma, a region thought to be located near the Hindu Kush. It mentions the Pakthas as part of a confederation of tribes and details their kings, participation in wars, and their region, which is identified as Loya Paktia in Afghanistan. This reference to the Pakhtas, or Pashtuns as they are known today, are in this ancient Vedic text, offers proof of their presence in this region for centuries.
The Mahabharata, another key ancient Indian text, refers to the tribes of Balhika, which are believed to be from Balkh, a region that has historical significance in Central Asia, particularly modern-day Afghanistan. The ancient name for Afghanistan was Bactria, and the city of Balkh is derived from this name.
In the Zoroastrian text Avesta, written between 1200-1000 BC, there is a mention of Bakhdium Sariram, meaning ‘beautiful Balkh’, a protectorate of the Aryans, among sixteen others. Over time, this name evolved into Balkh in Pahlavi literature. In the 8th-century Pahlavi version of the Avesta, found in Samarkand, it is referred to as Bakhal Bamik, which can be translated as ‘magnificent Bakhal’.
What we have read above does reflect some of the key attributes of Pashtun ethos, such as ‘badal’. A Pashto word that translates roughly to retaliation, ‘badal’ is a complex and sometimes violent part of Pashtun culture that is viewed as means to restore honour or dignity, or enact justice. Like the ‘blessings of Dan’, the Pashtun never welcome invaders in their territory, or at least never accept foreign rule easily and always fight back.
Ijaz Ahmed is the founder of the Islamabad Think Tank and can be reached via email at founder@itt.org.pk
All facts and information are the sole responsibility of the author